Dreams and Legends of Ancient Archaeologists
Legendary Adventures
Archaeology, the study of human history through the excavation and analysis of artifacts, structures, and other material remains, became an academic discipline by the mid-19th century. Yet its practices have been around far longer than one might expect. Ancient peoples from some of the oldest civilizations were already engaging in their own work that, in many ways, mirrored modern archaeology. Whether inspired by a dream, a vision, a visit from a god, or simply compelled to pursue the seemingly taboo, those who embarked on journeys to uncover the past unknowingly became legends, laying the very foundation that allows us to look back with the same sense of wonder.
Thutmose IV and the Dream Stele
Around 1401 BCE, the Sphinx of ancient Egypt’s Old Kingdom lay buried up to its neck in sand, neglected and lost to time. On an afternoon hunting expedition, a young prince named Thutmose IV, son of Amenhotep II of the 18th dynasty, happened upon what remained of the colossus and decided to sit in its shadow for a much-needed break. Before long, he slipped into a deep slumber, and the god of this mighty statue came to him in his dream. The god’s booming voice echoed, promising everlasting praise.
“Look at me, see me, my son Thutmosis. I am your father, Harmakhis-Khepri-Atum, and I shall give you the kingship on earth, in front of all the living ones. You shall wear the White and the Red Crowns upon the throne of Geb, the hereditary prince. The earth shall be yours in its length and width, (everything) that the Eye of the Lord-of-All illuminates. The food of the Two Lands shall be yours, (as well as) the great tributes of every foreign land, (your) lifetime will be a time, great in years.” (Dream Stele)
Still, the god would not offer such things without expecting something in return. The Sphinx, having been abandoned for 1,000 years, was rightfully owed.
“My face is yours, my heart is yours as you are a protector to me, for my (current) condition is like one that is in need, all my limbs (as if they were) dismembered as the sands of the desert upon which I lie have reached me. So run to me, to have that done which I desire, knowing that you are my son and my protector. Come forth, and I shall be with you, I shall be your leader.”
Thutmose suddenly woke, staring up in awe and reverence. Hastily, he summoned his hunting party and returned to the city. He promised the god offerings of oxen and vegetables, to raise it from its decrepit state, and to honor all those who came before him. Soon, Thutmose returned, released the Sphinx from its sandy tomb, and built a mud brick wall around it as a protective fortress. Meticulously, he had every stone that had fallen out of place returned and painted the statue in bold, brilliant colors. He had given the Sphinx what it wanted and more; his gift was the kingdom. Thutmose became pharaoh, and in his first year, he erected the Dream Stele, placing it at the back of an open-air chapel that sat between the Sphinx’s gargantuan front paws.
The stele tells Thutmose’s story of his dream and his offerings to the god. On the top left and right registers, it identifies the king with praise. On each side, the king appears with offerings of incense and libation. Between these two scenes, the god speaks his approval of Thutmose on the throne. The rest of the stele describes Thutmose’s encounter with the god and the promises he intended to keep.
It has been argued that Thutmose’s motivations were to secure the throne, one that was supposed to go to his older brother. By having a god by his side, he easily had all the legitimacy needed. There were, however, many ways to gain favor with the gods, and his unique choice may reflect something more. What Thutmose did to resurrect the Sphinx underlies the precision and dedication required in archaeological work. If it were not for the work he did, the Sphinx may have been completely taken by the sand by the time early 19th-century archaeologists began uncovering it. Unlike others, Thutmose has never been recognized as an early archaeologist. Regardless, the fate of the Sphinx was decided the day a boy lay to rest under its shadow.
The Legend of Prince Khaemweset
As the fourth son of Ramesses II, Prince Khaemweset had a childhood occupied by royal duties. He was physically fit, knowledgeable, and well-versed in the political and cultural landscape of Egypt. If he was not studying to become a high priest, he was often alongside his father, with whom he had a very close relationship, touring the country. His travels would have brought him to the grand monuments and necropolises of the past, an affinity he carried with him into adulthood.
Khaemweset would later become the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, in charge of the sacred burials of the Apis Bulls, worshipped as part of the Apis cult. In addition, he was the overseer of the construction of the bulls’ necropolis, the Serapeum at Saqqara. Within the House of Life at Memphis—a scriptorium, writing center, and library exclusive to temples—he studied ancient records and scripts, becoming one of the few who were able to understand ancient text and inscription. Using this knowledge and a profound sense of curiosity, he began his extraordinary journey to revitalize Egypt’s ancient past.
Though old structures were in the care of the priesthood, many had been forgotten, left in ruin and disrepair, or buried beneath shifting sands. Inspired, Khaemweset traveled to ancient necropolises, set on restoring, cleaning, and recording the monuments. In Saqqara and Giza, he left inscriptions, honoring those who had long since passed and reminding Egypt of its rich history. Like Thutmose, Khaemweset felt a special connection to Giza, eventually returning the entire site to its former glory.
During his excavation and restoration efforts at Giza, Khaemweset took notice of the statue of Khufu’s son, which had fallen down a shaft near the king’s pyramid. He raised the figure up and carefully placed it in a fitting location, leaving behind a beautifully worded inscription.
“It was the High Priest and Prince Khaemwise who delighted in this statue of the king's son Kawab, which he discovered in the fill of a shaft in the area of the well of his father Khufu. He acted so as to place it in the favour of the gods, among the glorious spirits of the chapel of the necropolis because he loved the noble ones who dwelt in antiquity before him, and the excellence of everything they made, in very truth, a million times.” (J.D. Ray translation)
Khaemweset died around 1225 BCE as the crown prince, favorite amongst his brothers, and before his father. His love for his ancient ancestors and his seemingly unrestrained, fearless entries into the tombs of the dead earned him eternal fame. It was generally believed that entering tombs was heedless and potentially hazardous, but Khaemweset saw it as his responsibility and an honor to safeguard these sacred places from ruin and keep the cults of ancient kings alive. Nonetheless, it gave him quite a legacy. He never had divine status, like that of Imhotep, the godly architect of Djoser’s step pyramid. He did, however, become a figure of fascination centuries after his death, particularly during the Late Period and Roman Era. Regarded as an adventurer, magician, and sage, fantastical stories emerged, embodying his spirit as an innovator, with magically infused moral undertones.
There were two stories centered around Khaemweset, referred to as Setna, his priestly name. In the first, Setna I, better known as Setna Khaemuas and Naneferkaptah, Prince Setna searches an ancient tomb, intent on finding a magical book written by the god of wisdom himself, Thoth. He is confronted by the family of the tomb owner: Naneferkaptah, his wife, and his son. Urging Setna not to take the book, he is warned of what might befall him. As a sage and magician, Naneferkaptah stole the book, hidden beneath the sea, which resulted in the drowning of his son and wife. Grief-stricken, Naneferkaptah took his own life. Still, Setna does not heed their warnings and is thus challenged to a game that he cannot win. His determination prevails as he summons his half-brother from outside the tomb to bring him his magic amulets and uses them to escape with the book.
Later, while Setna is in Memphis, he finds himself entranced by a beautiful woman. Pursuing her relentlessly, he inevitably loses everything dear to him: his home, all of his possessions, and, in the most devastating blow, his children are killed. Yet, and surprisingly so, he remains undeterred and lustful. While meeting the mysterious woman on the street, he pleads for a simple embrace, only for her to vanish before his eyes. He is then left naked and exposed in a perverted, humiliating position. Lying in the street, Pharaoh walks by and tells him it was all just a dream, that he must return the book and make amends with Naneferkaptah and Thoth. Setna did as he was instructed; the tomb was sealed, and the book was never to be seen again.
Setna II, or Setna and Si-Osire, begins with Setna’s wife praying for a son, soon granted one by the gods. His name is Si-Osire, a boy who matures rapidly in both mind and body. At a young age, he takes his father to the underworld to show him the consequences of goodness and greed. They pass by many whose life choices extend into death: those grasping in life perpetually grasp for food and water just barely out of reach; a poor man is rewarded, while a rich man is eternally crushed between the pivot of a door.
Along their journey, they meet a Nubian sorcerer, who challenges them to read an ancient scroll without breaking its seal. The task proves impossible for Setna, but his son reads it effortlessly. The scroll tells of an epic battle in the distant past between an Egyptian and Nubian sage. Upon reading the tale, it is revealed that Si-Osire is the reincarnation of the Egyptian sage, and the Nubian was his foe. Si-Osire swiftly unleashes a magical flame, defeating the Nubian. But the magic is too strong; his dear boy dissolves into nothingness, ceasing to exist. Setna leaves the underworld, draped in sorrow, but Pharaoh soon comforts him, assuring him that Si-Osire will be honored. He never forgets his son, forever leaving offerings to his soul until his last breath.
Even as a skilled magician and scholar, Khaemweset’s choices in both these tales were symbolic of very real cultural values and dilemmas. His reputation—one of a fearless tomb explorer—too closely resembled that of tomb robbers and those who defy the gods or spirits of the dead. Elements of hidden knowledge and ancient texts were drawn directly from his pursuits to protect Egyptian history and his wisdom in ancient inscriptions. Interestingly, his tales show elements of both Egyptian and Greco-Roman elements as well, specifically while in the underworld. One of the most recognizable aspects of Setna II is his relationship with his son, Si-Osire, which reflects his close relationship with his father, one that may have inspired later criticism. Similar to Thutmose, modern-day scholars point to his inscriptions on ancient monuments as a means to immortalize his father’s name as well as his own. Whatever the reason, Khaemweset will always be remembered as Egypt’s first true Egyptologist.
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Nabonidus, the Caretaker of Sin
Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire of ancient Mesopotamia. His reign began as his son plotted against the king, leading to his murder, and Nabonidus taking the throne. As an unorthodox ruler, he never spent much time in Babylon; instead, he preferred the deserts of Saudi Arabia, establishing a capital at the oasis of Tayma. Deeply devoted to the god of the moon, Sin, he attempted reformation. Of course, this came with great scrutiny, as did his frequent absences. Later generations would remember him as a heretic, a mad king, a usurper, and a man consumed by his admitted fixation with dreams.
In truth, Nabonidus found himself divinely compelled to retreat into ancient deserts to restore and rebuild what the past had left behind. He recounted his prophetic dream on one of his cylinders.
“In the beginning of my everlasting reign they sent me a dream. Marduk, the great lord, and Sin, the Luminary of heaven and the netherworld, stood together. Marduk spoke with me: Nabonidus, King of Babylon, carry bricks on your riding horse, rebuild Ehulhul and cause Sin, the great lord, to establish his residence in its midst.” (Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar)
He would go on to commission excavations and reconstructions at the Ehulhul of Sin in Haran—his self-proclaimed greatest accomplishment—and at the Eulmash of Anunitum in Sippar-Amnanum. However, his work at the Ebabbar temple in modern-day Iraq is currently known as the world’s first investigatory excavation due to complete records kept on a cylinder now housed at the British Museum that describe his methods and the study and dating of what he unearthed. The Ebabbar of Shimash, otherwise known as the Shining House, was an ancient cult center dedicated to Sin, possibly dating to around 2335 BCE.
Upon choosing a location for excavations, Nabonidus made sure to study its history and brought with him trained scribes to aid in decoding ancient inscriptions he found along the way. At Sippar, he aimed to reach the temple’s original foundations to reconstruct atop it, much like he did at other locations. At some point during his dig, he found an early inscription made by Naram-Sin, king of the Akkadian Empire from 2254-2218 BCE. Though his estimation of its date is relatively inaccurate, it demonstrates the level of detail and careful analysis that went into his work. For Nabonidus, it was also a commitment to his god.
“When you enter Ebabbar your beloved temple, when you take up residence in your eternal dais, look joyfully upon me, Nabonidus, King of Babylon, the prince your caretaker.” (Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar)
In addition to these locations, Nabonidus did work at Ur, restoring the ziggurat of Sin and recording inscriptions of early rulers thousands of years before his excavation. He also did work at Larsa in ancient Sumer and Akkad in Babylonia. In 542 BCE, after years of fieldwork, he finally returned to Babylon, only to be overthrown by the Persians. His fate remains a mystery. Still, his remarkable achievements have earned him the title of history’s first archaeologist.
Preserving the Past
Although uncovering the past has frequently been used to some advantageous ends, as in legitimizing one’s rule or immortalizing their name, it was never the only reason. Ancient civilizations were deeply dedicated to their religions. By maintaining temples, ancient structures, and monuments, they honored their gods and cultural identities. Countless leaders commissioned temples and restorations of the old. Expectedly, the political atmosphere was also deeply entrenched in the spiritual, exemplified by the Egyptian pharaoh’s status as a divine intermediary.
What elevated these men above the rest was their unwavering search for truth that gave the past a new life. Their adventurous spirits preserved what others had forgotten. They may have faced criticism or gone on to become legends in their own right, yet they all carry something enduring, something innately born from the curious mind—the very essence of archaeology.
Disclaimer: Portions of this article were part of a larger publication originally published on Ancient Origins Premium (21, January 2025)
Featured image: Rest on the Flight into Egypt, 1880. (Luc-Olivier Merson, Public Domain)
References:
Ray, J.D. 2002. Reflections of Osiris: Lives from Ancient Egypt. Profile.
Mark, J. J. 2017. Khaemweset. World History Encyclopedia. Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/Khaemweset/
Mark, J.J. 2017. The Tales of Prince Setna. World History Encyclopedia. Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1054/the-tales-of-prince-setna/
Translation of the Dream Stela. The Ancient Egypt Site. Available at: https://www.ancient-egypt.org/language/anthology/fiction/dream-stela/dream-stela---translation.html
Powell, E.A. 2022. The Last King of Babylon. Archaeology Magazine. Available at: https://archaeology.org/issues/march-april-2022/features/babylon-nabonidus-last-king/
Chrysopoulos, P. 2024. The World’s First Archaeologist Was a Babylonian King. Greek Reporter. Available at: https://greekreporter.com/2024/05/25/worlds-first-archaeologist-babylonian-king/
Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar. Livius. Available at: https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-sippar/